欧洲文化入门复习重点

2024-08-22

欧洲文化入门复习重点(精选4篇)

欧洲文化入门复习重点 篇1

1.希腊罗马Homer Author of epics Sappho Lyric poet 三大悲剧家:Aeschylus Tragic dramatist Sophocles Tragic dramatist Euripides Tragic dramatist 喜剧家:Aristophanes Comedy writer 历史学家:Herodotus wrote about wars between Greeks and Persians Father of history Thucydides wrote about wars between Athens and Sparta and Athens and Syracuse the greatest historian that have ever lived 哲学和科学:Pythagoras All things were numbers founder of scientific mathematics Heracleitue Fire is the primary element Democritus Materialist,one of the earliest exponents of the atomic theory Socrates Dissect of oneself,virtue was high worth of life,dialectical method Plato Man have knowledge because of the existence of certain general ideas Aristotle Direct observation,theory follow fact,idea and matter together made concrete individual realities Euclid a textbook of geometry Archimedes when a body is immersed in water its loss of weight is equal to the weight of the water displaced “Give me a place to stand and I„ll move the World”

Others Diogenes(the Cynics)Pyrrhon(the Sceptics)Epicurus(the Epicureans)Zeno(the Stoics)

4th century B.C.后半叶希腊在Alexander,king of Macedon的领导下,5th century B.C.达到顶峰,146 B.C.被罗马攻克

2.基督教和圣经Jews—以前叫Hebrews,3800B.C.穿过中东沙漠,1300B.C.Moses带领Hebrews离开埃及,开始他们的Exodus,他在Sinai山定了ten commandments in the name of God,40年后Hebrews定居Pelestine,known as Canaan,Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament,6th century B.C.,他们在Babylon形成synagogue(忧太集会)来发扬他们的教义。

Jesus Christ生活在第一个罗马帝国Augustus,Emperor Constantine 1于313年宣布基督教合法,Emperor Theodosius于392年宣布基督教为国教。

Hebrew人的历史口头传送记入the old Testament,旧约包含39本书,写了从1000B.C.——100A.D.的事情,最重要的前五本是Pentateuch,旧约主要由Hebrew写成,the New Testment主要是Greek的形式,包含14本书,最古老的Latin Bible叫Vulgate,在1382年被John Wycliff翻译成了英语,Greek Bible叫Septuagint 3.中世纪开始于476年西罗马帝国的衰败5-11世纪a period in which classical,Hebrew and Gothic heritage merged 1054,教堂分裂为the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church反击Moslems,开始了Crusades Charles Martel给士兵们estates known as fiefs in 732 St.Thomas Aquinas(Scholasticism)写了 Summa Theologica,这本书sums up all the knowledge of medieval theology他认为feudal hierarchy(层次,等级)of society is God„s rule The power of feudal rulers is God‟s will Pope is Christ„s Plenipotentiary Charlemagne and Alfred the Great encouraged learning by setting up monastery schools.They copied various ancient books and translated the Latin works into the venacular Roger Bacon and Experimental Science one of the earliest advocates of scientific research,called for careful observation Dante(但丁)神曲 one of the landmarks of world literature Chaucer first modern poet in English literature 4.文艺复兴与宗教改革14th and 17th Century Starting in Florence and Venice Boccaccio the greatest achievement of prose fiction in中世纪Petrarch Sonnet,father of modern poetry 文艺复兴早期的艺术家:Giotto forerunner of renaissance Brunelleschi showed a systematic use of perspective Donatello one of the first artists engaged in anatomy Giorgione made happy use of colour schemes to unify his pictures 意大利文艺复兴全盛时期的四位艺术家:Da Vinci Michelangelo Raphael Known for his Titian Oil color the most prolific of the great Venetian painters of Western World Pre-Luther Religious Reformers John Wycliffe chief forerunner of the reformation,took up the translation of the Bible into English for the first time in 1382 Jan Hus Czech Religious leader John Calvin 基督教教义 one of the most influential theological works Calvinism Rabelais 拉伯雷 french writer Ronsard Pleiade七星诗社代表人 法国第一个近代抒情诗人Montaigne 蒙田 散文集 French Writer Cervantes father of modern European novel spain Thomas More British writer Shakespeare 作品包括>点击下载>点击下载>点击下载>> crowned literature of England 代表欧洲文艺复兴的最高成就Copernicus The father of modern astronomy 现代天文学之父Vesalius marked the beginning of a new era in the study of anatomy(解剖学)founder of modern medicine Aldus Manutius foremost printer in Italy Machiavelli Father of political science Vosari 1492,Columbus发现了America 1487,Dias发现了the cape of good hope 1497,da Gama发现了the route to India round the Cape of Good Hope 5.17世纪Copernicus 天体运行论 Although he did not belong to the 17th century he was the forerunner of modern medicine Kepler Kepler„s Law(the three laws of planetary motion)德 国 the three laws formed the basis of all modern planetary astronomy and led to Newton‟s discovery of the laws of gravitation Galileo 意大利 acceleration in dynamics,the law of inertia,the law of falling bodies动力加速度,惯性定律,落体定律Newton 英国Leibniz Distinguishes three levels of understanding: self-conscious(自我意识)conscious(意识)unconscious/subconscious(潜意识)他和牛顿都是caculus的创始人Milton Areopagitica,English revolution Bacon Knowledge is power 英国 反对deductive method,创立了inductive method 认为哲学应该与神学分开Hobbes 利维坦 Materialist(knowledge come from experience)Social Contract 英国 认为最好的统治方式是monarchy Locke 政治论 Materialist views(ideas derived from sensation or from reflection)Social Contract英国在英国革命中有两个领袖,Cromwell 和John Milton Cromwell the man of action John Milton the man of thought 在英国文学史上ranks with Shakespear and Chaucer Descartes 笛卡尔 Cartesian Doubt I think therefore I am 法国 it is generally believed that modern philosophy begins with Bacon in England and Descartes in France Corneille 高乃依熙得 法国第一部古典主义悲剧,表现责任与爱情的冲突Racine the greatest tragic dramatist of French neoclassical theatre 表现情感和理性的冲突Moliere 达尔杜夫愤世嫉俗吝啬鬼 the best representative dramatist of French Classical comedies很多科学器械在被发明:microscope,telescope,thermometer,barometer,pendulum 1689,the Bill of Rights建立了the Parliament至高无上的权利法国最著名的建筑:Palace of Versailles Garden Front East Front of the Louvre英国最著名建筑:St.Paul„s Cathedral

6.启蒙运动 the age of reason 18th century intellectual movement starting from France the most important forerunners of the enlightenment were two 17th century Englishmen John Locke and Issac Newton.Locke„s materialist theory and Newton‟s theory of gravitation

Major force of the enlightenment is French Philosophes 18世纪两大著名运动:The American War of Independence(1776)ended British colonial rule over the U.S.独立宣言The French Revolution(1789)ended the French Monarchy and the first French Republic was born in 1792人权宣言

French Philosophy and Literature Montesquieu Separation of powers法国启蒙运动的先驱Voltaire most famous of his novels Rousseau one of the greatest figures of French enlightenment Diderot English Literature Pope spokesman in verse of the Age of Reason,translation of Homer,good at heroic couplet 擅长英雄双韵体Defoe one of the greatest fiction writer of the 18th century England 鲁滨逊漂流记Swift the foremost satirist in the English language and one of the satiric masters of all time Henry Fielding Father of the English novel Samuel Richardson The founder of English domestic novel Samuel Johnson editor of 18世纪英国文学最著名的期刊 The Tatler 和 The Spectator,Addison 和 Steele经常在上面写文章

German Literature and Philosophy Lessing German dramastist German classicism Goethe Apprenticeship/Travels> the Greatest German Poets Schiller a founder of modern German literature Kant Waterhead of modern philosophy Propose the nebular hypothesis History of Nature and Theory of the Heavens> reason> The Musical Enlightenment J.S.Bach Christianity Major musicians of the musical Enlightenment Handel 亨德尔

being his crowning masterpiece Bach and Handel showed the world Baroque musical architecture at its imposing best The Baroque period was followed by the Classical Period,roughly between 1750 and 1820 Haydn Classical period Viennese school Mozart Beethoven occupy a Pivotal position,leaning in much of his work towards the Romantic Movement in Music 7.浪漫主义 Romanticism late 18th and early 19th century starting from the ideas of Rouseau in France and from the Storm and Stress Movement in Germany The enlightenment brought about two revolutions and they caused Romanticism to rise: the French Revolution and the Industrial revolution New economic ideas were put forward by Adam Smith in his book,which laid the theoretical groundwork for capitalism.Romanticism in Germany The Storm and Stress Movement prepared the way for European Romanticism Goethe combined Romanticism with Classicism It was Love and Intrigue that made Schiller the best dramatist for the Storm and Stress The Jena School: Schlegel Brothers,Novalis and Tieck Heine: 海涅在1836年发表>,宣告浪漫主义在德国文学中的统治地位的结束

Romanticism in England Blake:The Lakers: Wordsworth and Coleridge Byron: is considered his masterpiece the fact that the poet died for the Greek causes made him more respected his poem expressed an ardent love of liberty and a fierce hatred of tyranny Shelley noted for his lyrics Keats famous for his sonnets Walter Scott Romanticism in France Chateaubriand :Victor Hugo: 法国浪漫主义文学的最重要的作家。他于1827年发表的 Cromwell>是法国浪漫主义运动的一篇重要宣言。他的长篇小说巴黎圣母院 悲惨世界宣扬了“爱”与“仁慈”等人道主义精神。The greatest poet of his day George Sand:法国浪漫主义文学最杰出的女作家

Romanticism in Italy Manzoni: 约婚夫妇是意大利文学史上第一部以爱压迫的劳动人民为主人公的小说Leopardi: he was the greatest poet of Italy Romanticism Romanticism in Russia Russia Romanticism began that way-adapting French plays and translating German and English poetry Pushkin: 俄国浪漫主义先锋(van)a Byronic character his masterpiece is 创造了俄国文学中的第一个“多余的人”的典型Lermontov: draws a fine portrait of Pushkin Romanticism in Poland Adam Mickiewicz: beginning of Polish Romanticism is his masterpiece Art and Architecture Goya Spanish painter and etcher(蚀刻家)欧洲浪漫主义先驱 Execution of the Third of May> Children> David French Painter Delacroix 代表着法国浪漫主义绘画的最高成就Gericault French painter Turner English landscape painter Constable English landscape painter Turner and Constable代表了浪漫主义画派的最高成就

Music早期浪漫主义音乐家:Beethoven(贝多芬)German Composer marked the beginning of 19th century programme music Schubert(舒伯特)Austrian composer Chopin(肖邦)Polish composer Schumann(舒曼)German composer Mendelssohn(门德尔松)German composer 后期浪漫主义音乐家:Berlioz(伯辽兹)French composer Liszt(里斯特)Hungarian composer Wagner(瓦格纳)German composer Brahms(伯拉姆斯)German composer Tchaikovsky(柴科夫斯基)Russian composer 8.马克思主义和达尔文主义 Marxism and Darwinism The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism German Classical Philosophy and Marxist Philosophy:Hegelian dialectics 黑格尔辩证法Feuerbach„s materialism费尔巴哈唯物论Marxist Philosophy Dialectical materialism马克思主义辩证唯物论Historical materialism 马克思主义历史唯物论English Classical Political Economy and Marxist Political Economy Capital is the most important work by Marx about Marxist economics Surplus value was the source of profit,the source of the wealth of the capitalist class Doctrine of surplus value in Capital is the cornerstone of Marx‟s economic theory Utopian Socialism and Scientific Socialism Robert Owen: English industrialist and social reformer Henri de Saint-Simon: French social philosopher Charles Fourier: French social philosopher Darwinism As Newton dominated 17th century science with the discovery of the laws governing the bodies of the universe,Charles Darwin dominated the 19th century science for his discovering of the laws governing the evolution of man himself.In the history of science he takes up a position as important as these occupied by Copernicus,Galileo and Newton.Darwin was not the first man to put forward the theory of evolution Lamarck was the first man whose conclusion on the subject.However,he failed to produce any evidence,French naturalist(自然主义者)

Lyell English geologist Karl Marx Darwin„s works and Theories:On the origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life The Descent of Man 9.现实主义Realism arise in the 50s of the 19th century and had its origin in France Realism in France Stendhal 司汤达 红与黑是法国批判现实主义第一部成熟的作品 巴马修道院Balzac巴尔扎克 Balzac has been called the French Dickens as Dickens has been called the English Balzac Flaubert 福楼拜 非常重视艺术形式he is often called the first French realist包法利夫人Zora 左拉 founder of the naturalist school鲁贡玛-马卡尔家族史Maupassant 莫伯桑

Realism in Russia Gogol果戈里 the first master of fiction in Russia Chickikov A character in Shame,and hypocrisy Turgenev屠格涅夫 the first Russian author to gain recognition in the West Dostoyevsky陀思妥耶夫斯基罪与罚卡拉马佐夫兄弟Leo Tolstoy列夫托尔斯泰 战争与和平安娜卡列尼娜

复活Chekhov契诃夫海欧 万尼亚舅舅 Sisters>三姐妹

樱桃园

Realism in Northern Europe Ibsen a plea for the emancipation of woman His plays are viewed as the fountainhead of much modern drama Strindberg The above three are his autobiographical works His first play is Realism in England This period occurs at the latter half of the reign of Queen Victoria,这时期意味着大英帝国的顶峰,但太平盛世只是外表,整个国家内乱不断,危机重重Charles Dickens 大卫科波菲尔 荒凉山庄艰难时世 其小说展现了广阔的社会生活,真实情节与诗意气氛的结合,幽默、风趣与悲剧的结合George Eliot(Mary Ann Evans-PEN NAME)is regarded by some critics as the finest English novel of the 19th century Thackeray萨克雷 名利场 他的写作范围多局限于上流社会Thomas Hardy Mayor of Casterbridge> Bernard Shaw萧伯纳 won the Nobel Prize in 1925 Realism in the United States Harriet Beecher Stowe: greatest of all anti-slavery manifestoes Walt Whitman:Considered to be the greatest of all American poets Mark Twain: 哈克贝里芬历险记 a masterpiece of humour,characterization and realism,has been considered the first modern American novel 镀金岁月Henry James 出身世家,所以关注上层人物 the master beyond all masters贵妇人画像

Art Courbet库尔贝 French artist 反映生活的真实是创作的最高原则石工 奥尔南的葬礼Millet米勒 French artist “农民画家”播种者拾穗者Impressionism in Art印象派艺术Manet 草地上的午餐福列斯贝热尔酒吧间Monet 日出印象Post-Impressionism in Art 后印象派艺术Paul Cezanne赛尚Van Gogh 凡高 dutch painter Paul Gauguin 高更 French painter 10.现代主义及其它思潮 Modernism and other trends also called “the tradition of the new” “dehumanization of art” originating from the end of 19th century Discoveries made at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century:Rontgen: the discovery of X-rays 伦琴 德国物理学家发明X射线Becquerel: the discovery of radioactive properties of uranium 贝克勒尔 法国物理学家 放射性现象的发现者,肯定了铀元素自发射线的性质Marie Curie the discovery of radium居里夫人 法国物理学家和放射学家发现镭Soddy the discovery of isotopes 索迪 英国放射化学家 同位素Rutherford the discovery of the atomic nucleus卢瑟福 英国物理学家发现原子核Einstein Special Theory of Relativity General Principles of Relativity Contemporary Western Literature Eliot Conrad polish novelist Woolf English novelist Lawrence English writer considered one of the “makers” of modern English fiction Love> Yeats Irish writer Joyce Man> Irish writer Pound a leading figure of the Imagist movement American poet Faulkner Hemingway Tolls> Thomas Mann The most influential and representative German author of his time Gide French writer Proust French novelist Albert Camus French novelist Gorky The greatest Russian literary figure of the 20th century Sholokhov soviet author Literature and Philosophy Since 1945 Angry Young Men in England 英国愤怒的青年Amis Osborne Beat Generation in America美国垮掉的一代Ginsberg Kerouac Nouveau Roman(New Novel)法国新小说派Robber-Griller Sarraute The Theatre of the Absurd欧洲的荒诞派Beckett Irish writer Ionesco French writer Black Humour 美国黑色幽默派Heller Chapcter 1 Introduction

1、There are many elements constituting(组成)European Culture.2、There are two major elements: Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.3、The richness(丰富性)of European Culture was created by Greco-Roman element and Judeo-Christian element.第一章

1、The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.2、The economy of Athens rested on(依赖)an immense(无限的)amount of slave labour.3、Olympus mount,Revived in 1896(当代奥运会)

4、Ancient Greece(古希腊)„s epics was created by Homer.5、They events of Homer„s own time.(错)

(They are not about events of Homer„s own time,probably in the period 1200-1100 B.C.)

6、The Homer„s epics consisted of Iliad and Odyssey.7、Agamemnon,Hector,Achilles are in Iliad.8、Odysseus and Penelope are in Odyssey.9、Odyssey(对其作品产生影响)—→James Joyoe„s Ulysses(描述一天的生活)。In the 20th century.10、Drama in Ancient Greece was floured in the 5th century B.C.11、三大悲剧大师

① Aeschylus 《Prometheus Bound》—→模仿式作品 Shelly《Prometheus Unbound》

② Sophocles(之首)

《Oedipus the King》—→ Freud„s “the Oedipus complex”(恋母情结)—→ David Herbert Lawrence‟s《Sons and lovers》(劳伦斯)447页

③ Euripides A.《Trojan Women》

B.He is the first writer of “problem plays”(社会问题剧)在肖伯纳手中达到高潮,属于存在主义戏剧的人物

C.Elizabeth Browning called him “Euripides human”(一个纯粹的人)

D.Realism can be traced back(追溯到)to the Ancient Greece.To be specific(具体来说),Euripides.12、The only representative of Greek comedy is Aristophanes.18页

Aristophanes writes about nature.—→浪漫主义湖畔派(The lakers)华兹华兹

Swift says of him “As for comic Aristophanes,The dog too witty and too profane is.”(新古典主义代表作家《格列夫游记》《大人国小人国》《温和的提议》用讽刺的写作手法)

13、History(Historical writing)史学创作

※ “Father of History” —→ Herodotus —→ war(between Greeks and Persians)

This war is called Peleponicion wars.博罗奔泥撒,3 只是陈述史实,并没有得出理论。

※ “The greatest historian that ever lived.”(有史以来最伟大的历史学家)—→ Thucydides —→ war(Sparta,Athens and Syracuse)

14、The Greek historical writing writes mainly about wars.15、受希腊文化影响的传教士St.Paul.Democritus(Materialism)

16、希腊文化中的哲学被基督教所吸收

17、① Euclid„s Elements解析几何

It was in use in English schools until the early years of the 20th century.(历史地位)

② Archimedes His work not only in geometry几何学,but also in arithmetic算术,machanics机械,and hydrostatics.流体静力学

选择:Give me a place to stand,and I will move the world.谁的理论(Archimedes)

18、Architecture古希腊建筑三大风格

temple—→Parthenon帕特农神庙

① The Doric style is also called masculine style.(宏伟的)

but the Doric style is monotonous and unadorned(单调)

is sturdy(坚强的),powerful,severelooking(庄严肃穆)and showing a good sense of proportions and numbers.② The Ionic style is also called the feminine style.(阴柔的)

is graceful(优雅的)and elegant(优美的)。

The Ionic style often shows a wealth of ornament.(装饰性)

③ The Corinthian style is known for its ornamental luxury.(奢侈)

19、The famous temples: The Acrpolis at Athens and the Parthenon.20、The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C.Marked Roman conquest of Greece.21、The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture.(罗马征服希腊的标志)

22、From 146 B.C.,Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.Greek that of the eastern half.23、Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.24、The Roman writer Horace said “captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive”。

25、The dividing range(分水岭)in the Roman history refers to 27 B.C.26、The year 27 B.C.Divided the Roman history into two periods: republic and empire.27、The idea of Republic can be traced back to Plato„s republic.

28、The land area of Roman empire reached its climax in 2 to 3 century.29、north: Scotland east: Armenia and Mesopotamia 30、In the Roman history,there came two hundred years of peaceful time,which was guaranteed(保证)by the Roman legions(罗马军团)

31、In the Roman history,there came two hundred years of peaceful time,which was known as Pax Romana.(神圣罗马帝国)

32、名解In the Roman history,there came two hundred years of peaceful time,which was guaranteed(保证)by the Roman legions,it was known as Pax Romana

33、The Roman Law protected(保护)the rights of plebeians(平民)。

34、The important contribution made by the Romans to the European culture was the Roman Law.35、After 395,the empire was divided into East(the Byzantine Empire)and West.36、Cicero西赛罗

he legal and political speeches are models of Latin diction拉丁语用词

described as Ciceronian.西赛罗式的

an enormous influence(巨大影响)on the development of European prose.(散文)

37、Julius Caesar commentaries批评论 “I came,I saw,I conquered.”

38、Virgil Aeneid 阿尼德

39、The pantheon was built in 27 B.C.The world„s first vast interior space.世界上第一所最大的室内场所

40、The Colosseum(大理石像)it„s an enormous.露天的环形影剧院

41、Sculpture(雕塑)She-wolf(母狼)

42、The representation form of Greek Democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的表现形式

43、The embodiment of Greek democracy is citizen-assembly.古希腊民主的具体形式

论述简答

一、What is the limitation of “Democracy” in ancient Greece?(名解简答)

(How do you understand “Democracy” in ancient Greece? What is the difference between “Democracy” in ancient Greece and modern democracy?)答:

① Democracy means “exercise of power by the whole people”,but in Greece by “the whole people” the Greeks meant only the adult male citizens.② Women,children,foreigners and slaves were excluded from Democracy.二、How did the Greek Culture originate and develop?

答:

① Probably around 1200 B.C.,a war was fought between Greece and troy.This is the war that Homer refers to in his epics.② Greek culture reached a high point of development in the 5th century B.C.A.The successful repulse of the Persian invasion(入侵)early in the 5th century.B.The establishment of democracy.C.The flourishing(蒸蒸日上的)of science,philosophy,literature,art and historical writing in Athens.③ The 5th century closed with civil war between Athens and Sparta.④ In the second half of the 4th century B.C.,Greece was conquered by Alexander,king of Macedon.Whenever he went and conquered,whenever Greek culture was found.⑤ Melting between Greek culture and Roman culture in 146 B.C.,the Romans conquered Greece.三、How did the Ancient Greek philosophy develop?

答:

(1)、Three founders

1、Pythagoras ① All things were numbers.② Scientific mathematics.③ Theory of proportion.比例的理论

2、Heracleitue ① Fire is the primary(主要的)elements of the universe.火是万物之源

② The theory of the mingling of opposites produced harmony.矛盾的对立统一

3、Democritus ① the atomic theory.第一个原子理论开拓者

② materialism.唯物主义

(2)、Three thinkers

1、Socrates ①He hadn„t works.We can know him from Plato‟s dialogues.②The dialectical method was established by Socrates.2、Plato ①The Academy is the first school in the world,it was established by Plato.②He has four works.Dialogues,Apology,Symposium and Republic.3、Aristotle ①The Lyceum is the second school in the world,it was established by Aristotle.②Aristotle is a humanist.(2)、Five contending schools

1、The Sophists诡辩派

①Under the leadership of Protagoras.②The representative of work is On the God.诸神论

③His doctrine教义 is “man is the measure of all things”。人是衡量一切的标准

2、The Cynics犬儒派

①Under the leadership of Diogenes.②The word “cynic” means “dog” in English.③He proclaimed宣扬 his brotherhood.And he had no patience with the rich and powerful.权利

3、The Sceptics置疑学派

①Under the leadership of Pyrrhon.②His thought is not all knowledge was attainable可获得的,and doubting the truth of what others accepted as true.4、The Epicureans享乐派

①Under the leadership of Epicurus.选择:根据领导者的名字直接命名

②Pleasure to be the highest good in life but not sensual肉欲 enjoyment.享乐

Pleasure could be attained by the practice of virtue.通过实行道德获得

Epicurus was a materialist.He believed that the world consisted of atoms.原子

5、The Stoics斯多哥派

①Under the leadership of Zeno.②His thought is duty is the most important thing in life.One should endure忍受 hardship艰难 and misfortune不幸 with courage.勇气

Developed into Stoics„ duty.He was also a materialist.四、What philosophy system did Plato established?(Why do we say Plato„s philosophy system was idealistic? Do you think Plato built up a comprehensive综合的 system of philosophy?)

答:

1、It dealt with,among other things,the problem of how,in the complex,ever—changing world,men were to attain获得 knowledge.2、The first case and physical自然 world should take the secondary case.3、Idealistic of philosophy.4、Many of Plato„s ideas were later absorbed into Christian thought.(吸收到基督教的思想中)

五、What„s the difference between Plato and Aristotle in terms of their philosophical ideas(system)?

答:

1、For one thing,Aristotle emphasized(强调)direct observation of nature and insisted that theory should follow fact.(理论联系实际)This is different from Plato„s reliance(依赖)on subjective thinking.(万物依赖主观思维)

2、For another,he thought that “form” and matter together made up concrete(具体的)individual(个别的)realities.(物质与意识共同构成的客观事实)Here,too,he differed from Plato who held that ideas had a higher reality than the physical world(意识高于物质)

3、Aristotle thought happiness was men„s aim in life.But not happiness in the vulgar庸俗的 sense,but something that could only be achieved by leading a life of reason,goodness and contemplation.(善良和期待)

一句话简答题

What should be man„s aim in life?

Aristotle„s answer was: happiness.六、What is the great significance of Greek Culture on the later-on cultural development?

(What positive influence did the Greek Culture exert运用 on the world civilization文化?)

答:

There has been an enduring excitement兴奋 about classical经典的 Greek culture in Europe and elsewhere别处。Rediscovery of Greek culture played a vital有生命力的 part in the Renaissance in Italy and other European countries.1、Spirit of innovation创新精神

The Greek people invented mathematics and science and philosophy; They first wrote history as opposed反对 to mere纯粹的 annals历史记载; They speculated思索 freely about the nature of the world and the ends of life生命的轮回,without being bound in the fetters束缚 of any inherited orthodoxy.继承的习俗

2、Supreme Achievement至高无上的成就 The Greeks achieved supreme achievements in nearly all fields of human endeavour努力: Philosophy,science,epic poetry,comedy,historical writing,architecture,etc.3、Lasting effect持续的影响

①Countless无数的 writers have quoted举例,borrowed from and otherwise used Homer„s epics,the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles and Euripides,Aristophanes‟s comedies,Plato„s Dialogues,ect.②In the early part of the 19th century,in England alone,three young Romantic poets expressed their admiration of Greek culture in works which have themselves become classics经典之作: Byron„s Isles of Greece,Shelley‟s Hellas and Prometheus Unbound and Keats„s Ode on a Grecian Urn.③In the 20th century,there are Homeric parallels与…平行 in the Irishman爱尔兰 James Joyce„s modernist masterpiece代表作 Ulysses.七、What is the similarity and difference between Greek culture and Roman culture?

答:

1、similarity ① Both peoples had traditions rooted in the idea of the citizen-assembly.② Their religions were alike enough for most of their deities(神)to be readily(容易的)identified(一致),and their myths(崇拜的神)to be fused.(融合)

③ Their languages worked in similar ways,both being members of the Indo-European language family.2、difference ① The Romans built up a vast(巨大的)empire; the Greeks didn„t,except for the brief(短暂的)moment of Alexander‟s conquests,which soon disintegrated.(瓦解)

② The Romans were confident(自信的)in their own organizational power,their military and administrative capabilities.(管理国家的能力)

八、What is the Rome historical background?

答:

1、The history of Rome divided into two periods: Before the year 27 B.C.,Rome had been a republic; from the year 27 B.C.,Octavius took supreme(最大的)power as emperor with the title of Augustus and Roman Empire began.2、Two centuries later,the Roman Empire reached its climax,marked by land area„s extension: Encircling(环绕)the Mediterranean.(地中海)

3、Strong military power: the famous Roman legions.4、In the Roman history,there came two hundred years of peaceful time,which was guaranteed(保证)by the Roman legions,it was known as Pax Romana.5、Another important contribution made by the Romans to European culture was Roman Law.6、The empire began to decline in the 3rd century.选择

① In the 4th century the emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Byzantium.Renamed it Constantinople(modern Istanbul)。

欧洲文化入门复习重点 篇2

这三门课中考生感到最陌生的就是“欧洲文化入门”了。有些学生可能会问:“学习英语的过程中,我只要学好口语、听力、阅读、写作和翻译不就可以了吗?这门课程能给我带来什么呢?”这个问题的回答是:任何一种语言都是与相应的文化紧密相连的,要想学好语言,就避不开对文化的了解,比如一个英语专业的考生如果不熟悉《圣经》的基本内容,就不能很好地理解英语中数量繁多的成语和典故。

“欧洲文化入门”就是这样一门帮助学生了解西方文化背景的课程。和大多数以英语基础技能为考核目标的课程不同,这门课的考核目标是西方国家的历史发展、政治制度、宗教状况和文学成就,属于背景知识类课程。这门课的知识量大,同时要求考生有一定的叙述能力、归纳能力和思维能力。此外,这门课程还系统地介绍了西方各国主要政治家、思想家、文学家的生平、事迹以及主要著作,可以帮助学生开阔视野,增长知识,提高个人修养,积累写作素材。

这门课究竟该如何备考呢?笔者在自考领域从事教学工作多年,教授过绝大部分课程,有一些心得,在这里和大家分享一下。

两个复习原则

“欧洲文化入门”这门课程的内容很多,参加英语自考的考生应适当把握复习原则,才能抓住课程的精髓。笔者总结了两条复习的原则,以供大家参考。

原则一:以考核大纲为中心,对考核目标进行系统的学习

举例来说,《欧洲文化入门》全书共分十个章节,每个章节的内容分为历史背景、宗教概况、哲学思想、文学创作思想和建筑特色,共计五大方面的内容。显然,没有教师的辅导,学生面对这样一本内容丰富、背景复杂的课本,肯定有一种无所适从的感觉。例如课本的第二章《圣经和基督教兴起》共涉及《圣经旧约》、《圣经新约》、基督教兴起、《圣经》翻译和《圣经》的文学历史价值共计五个方面的内容。这么多的内容,考生怎样才能理清头绪呢?答案就是考核大纲。考核大纲中已经很明确地规定哪些是必须掌握的内容,并把这些内容确定为考核目标。比如考核目标规定考生必须掌握《圣经旧约》和《圣经新约》的英语写法,考生就应该注意“旧约”和“新约”分别写成“Old Testament”和“New Testament”。再如考核目标中要求考生掌握“约”这个字的含义(What is the testament?),考生就应该注意课本中这样一句话:“约是人类和上帝之间的约定。”(The testament is a covenant between people and God.)另外,还必须注意“约定”这个词不写成“contract”,而是写成“covenant”。在这种情况下,如果考生想既加快阅读速度,又不遗漏考试重点,那么严格按照大纲中规定的考核目标进行学习就显得极其重要了。

原则二:对课本中的知识点进行归纳总结

这是由考试的特点决定的,也符合大多数英语自考学生的实际情况,毕竟考试是为了考查学习者对知识点的掌握和熟练程度,而不是为难考生,因而总是有章可循的。当然,仅仅了解复习原则还是不够的。长达五百页的课本仍然有不计其数的内容要背诵,这就要求考生掌握一些学习的方法和技巧才能事半功倍,学习和考试的时候才能驾轻就熟。就“欧洲文化入门”这门课而言,有如下三种复习和归纳知识点的方法:

1.时间排列法在教学中笔者发现,作为一门以了解西方国家文化背景为宗旨的课程,《欧洲文化入门》具有知识体系庞杂、内容繁多的特点。这种情况下,死记硬背课本内容是根本行不通的,但是如果把各个章节的相关知识点串联在一起,学习效率就会比较高,背诵效果也比较好。

以历史背景这个知识点为例,课本在全书十个章节中共涉及了以下内容:公元前五世纪初的希腊波斯战争(2 Persian Wars)、公元前五世纪末的希腊内战(Civil War between Spartans and Athens)、公元前三世纪的罗马法(Roman Laws)、公元前146年罗马征服希腊(Romans conquered Greece)、公元前27年的罗马改制(Rome changed from a republic to an empire)、公元395年的东西罗马帝国分裂(Separation of Rome Empire)、公元476年的西罗马帝国灭亡(the fail of West Rome Empire)、1054年基督教会分裂(Separation of Christian Church)、1096~1270年的十字军东征(Crnsades)、1517年的基督教会改革(Martin Luther's Reformation)等共计三十多个历史事件。这些知识点分散在不同的章节中,如果孤立地复习,一定会背了前面的知识点,忘了后面的知识点,但是如果把它们用年代加事件的方法串接起来,不仅能使复习的思路清晰起来,还能提高背诵的效率。

2.对比法对于一些背景复杂的知识点,用对比法复习的效果比较显著。比如课程的考核目标中共有三个哲学家提出过“社会契约”理论,霍布斯和洛克的理论是在第五章中论述的,而卢梭的理论是在第六章中论述的。这三个人的理论依据不同、观点不同、阶级立场不同,不是通过死记硬背就能解决的。通过归纳总结,我们可以把三个“社会契约”理论归纳为:霍布斯强调人民把权力交给君主获得和平;洛克强调人民把权力交给社团获得自由;卢梭强调人民把权力交给公议获得民主。(Hobbes emphasizes that people surrender their rights to a monarch in return for peace; Locke emphasizes that people surrender their rights to a community in return for liberty;Rousseau emphasizes that people surrender their rights to the general will in return for democracy),通过这样的学习——先归纳总结,然后再英汉对照地背诵课文内容,考生既掌握了课文的内容,也加深了印象,可谓一举两得。

3.口诀法除了时间排列法和对比法以外,考生还可以根据文章的内容,把知识点编成一些口诀或者顺口溜,用以提高学习效率。中文口诀编写得简单流畅、朗朗上口,背起英语内容自然驾轻就熟、过目不忘。比如课本中讲到希腊哲学家的时候,曾经涉及了七个主要的流派和代表人物,一个一个背效果肯定不好,但是如果编成“公元前五世纪三巨头互为师生,公元前四世纪四大派百家争鸣”,则理解记忆起来就快多了。这样一来,苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德等人名和他们彼此的关系也就能用最简洁、最清晰的方法体现出来了。

再比如,课本中涉及的科学家很多,考生如果记不住,可以归纳为“没有哥白尼就没有开普勒,没有开普勒就没有牛顿,没有牛顿就没有爱因斯坦”,这样哥白尼的日心说、开普勒的行星三定律、牛顿的万有引力和爱因斯坦的相对论,就通过口诀的形式得到了总结,从而强化了记忆。

一个注意事项

考生准备考试的时候,要特别注意一点,那就是分析历年真题。考生应该浏览2000~2008年的考题,先确定已经考过的内容,进而确定没有考过的内容。这一点在准备问答题的时候尤其重要。例如:通过对真题的回顾,会发现2001年的问答题是“为什么文艺复兴是中世纪和现代的转折点”,2002年的问答题为“希腊城邦和罗马帝国的异同”,2003年的问答题为“基督教和其他宗教的区别”,2004年的问答题为“文艺复兴的四大特色”,2005年的问答题为“什么是社会达尔文主义”,2006年的问答题为“希腊文化对西方文明的贡献”。但是课本中其他和问答题有关的还有:“希腊社会的特点”“《圣经》对英语的影响”“十字军东征的意义”“新教改革和资本主义的关系”“英国权力法案的内容和意义”“17世纪的两大特点”“工业革命的五个特点”等,这些内容都没有在2007年以前的问答题中出现过。如果考生对这些考核内容予以足够的注意,就不难发现2007年的问答题恰恰是“权力法案的内容和意义”,而2008年的考题正是“17世纪的两大特点”。这并不是鼓励考生猜题和押题,而是提醒考生:如果不能确定已经考过的内容,又怎么压缩考核范围,明确考试重点,确定没有考过的内容呢?总之,一定要在考试之前对已经考过的内容做到心中有数,复习的时候才能分清主次,考试的时候才能有条不紊。

对外汉语教学入门复习重点 篇3

1.作为一门新兴学科,汉教是在20世纪80年代出现的。是交叉学科。

2.汉教是语言教学的一种,是应用语言学的一个分支学科,汉语国际教育2008年列入一级学科“中国语言文学”之下的二级学科。

3.第一语言:孩子最早习得的语言,从父母和周围人那里自然习得的语言。4.和第二语言:在第一语言之后再学习的其他语言。(应用语言学把一语之外的语言统称第二语言。)5.目标语:指学习者正在学习的语言。

6.习得:指从周围环境中通过自然学习获得某种能力。人的第一语言都是习得的。7.习得的阶段。5个。

前语言阶段1到2个月;单词句阶段1 1.5;双词句阶段1.5 2;多词句阶段2 3;复杂句和语篇阶段4 5。8.第一语言学习和第二语言习得的差异。(7个)主体(幼儿和成人)、动机(生存本能和目的不一)、环境(自然环境和课堂)、方式(环境与语言结合和母语连结概念和声音)、教育者及相关因素(亲属和教师)、过程(不自觉到自觉和自觉到不自觉)、文化(母语文化环境和缺乏相应文化知识)。9.教学主体观。(变为以学生为中心)

10.双体观认为,教师是教育行为的主体,学生是学习和发展的主体,现代教育过程就是教师与学生双主体协同活动的过程。

11.美国语言学家海姆斯提出语言学还应该研究人的交际能力,这个概念包括四个方面:合语法性、可接受性、适合性和可能性。

12.传统教学法的,语法——翻译法(18世纪,奥伦多夫)、直接法(20世纪,贝利兹)、全身反应法(20世纪60年代,美国阿舍尔,强调通过身体动作教授第二语言)

13.编写教案(教案形式、教案内容、教案编写步骤)教案的核心部分是教学环节或教学过程。

14.对比分析的心理学基础与流派:对比分析的心理学基础是行为主义心理学,它有以下重要概念:习惯、迁移与偏误。

15.迁移:旧习惯会对学习新习惯产生干扰。学习者已经掌握的语言会对他们学习其他语言产生影响,这种影响叫迁移。有两种:正、负。

16.正迁移:有利于语言学习的迁移,但第一语言的某些语言点跟第二语言相同时就可能出现。负:也叫干扰,由于套用母语模式或规则而产生的错误或不合适的目的语形式。17.偏误:偏离目的语、不符合目的语规则的语言现象。18.二语习得专家艾利斯提出的对比“等级”

19.偏误分析的作用:深化汉语习得研究、促进汉教、推动汉语本体研究。20.偏误类别与原因:语际偏误(又称干扰性偏误或对比性偏误)、语内偏误(又称目标语规则泛化偏误、发展性偏误)、训练偏误、认知偏误(普遍偏误)、21.中介语及其发展过程。

中介语:是学习者在二语习得过程中构建的,既不同于母语又不同于目标语的一种语言知识系统。它是逐步接近目标语的一种发展阶段。这一概念是由塞林格于1972年提出的。科德提到两种中介语连续体;重构型连续体、重建型连续体。

中介语有可塑性、动态性、系统性3个特征。

中介语的变异:社交情景变异、语境变异。见图3.2 22.可理解输入和:“i+1”原则:克拉申强调,二语习得依赖于学习者得到的可理解输入。

23.临界假说。10岁前,大脑的可塑性好,左右脑运作语言、10以后,大多数人的语言功能逐步转移到到左脑,语言学习的能力减退。

24.语言能力,有两类,第一类是认知/学术能力,如学习语法、词汇的能力和阅读理解、默写,自由写作能力,跟认知符号法学习相关。第二类是基本的人际交际技能,涉及口语表达的流利性和语言使用能力,跟听说法学习相关。25.认知策略和元认知策略

26.认知策略:指学习者用以提高学习和记忆能力,特别是完成具体的课堂任务时的行为,是在对学习材料进行直接分析综合和转换等过程中采取的步骤或操作,具有操作加工或认知加工的功能。认知策略是用来理解语言和产生语言的,包括操练、接受、和发出信息,分析和推理、为输入和输出创造构架等。

27.交际策略的的定义:被看作学习者客服交际难题的方法,是指学习者因其第二语言知识有限而采取的一种表达方式。类型:缩减策略、成就策略、28.文化适应模式

文化适应是指学习者逐渐适应新文化的过程。文化适应模式的基本假设是:二语习得只是文化适应的一个方面,而且一个学习者对目的语社会文化的适应程度将会决定他习得第二语言的程度。

29.语言普遍性假说。目标语的特征是否具有普遍性,会影响习得难度。大多数语言具有的性质,比很少语言具有的性质容易学。普遍语法、类型普遍性

30.课程设置,分为技能类和知识类,是教材分类的基本依据。前者培训交际技能,后者教授系统知识。技能类包括通用汉语技能和专用汉语技能;知识类分为语言知识课程和其他相关课程。31.教材编写应科学性原则、实用性原则、适合性原则、趣味性原则。32.语言测试的原则:针对性、可靠性(常用的方法有重测法和对等法)、有效性、实用性。33.平均数、中位数、众数、这三个量完全相同时,是最理想化状态

34.汉语正东亚、东南亚的传播:秦汉时期汉语文字开始向外传播,并逐步形成一个“汉字文化圈”,主要包括现在东亚的朝鲜半岛、日本和东南亚的越南。35.总体来说,汉字在朝鲜半岛、日本、越南的传播大致有3个阶段:第一个阶段,用汉字记录本民族语言;第二阶段,为满足记录本民族语言的需要,改变一些汉字的作用、创造出特殊的汉字、如越南的喃字,日本的国字;第三阶段,依照汉字特点创造本民族文字。目前的情况是,日语,韩语、越南语中存在大量的汉语借词。在日本,日语还夹夹用2131个汉字和若干人名用字,每年举办汉字检定考试,受测人数已超过200万;800多万部手机中三分之二可以输入汉字短信。2005年2月9日,韩国政府宣布,在所有公务文件和交通标识领域,全面恢复使用汉字和汉字标记,规定将目前全用韩语的公务文件改为韩汉两种文字并用。

36.创办专业刊物,成立专业出版社:1979年9月原北京语言学院的内部刊物《语言教学与研究》改为正式出版刊物,成为我国第一个对外汉语教学的专业刊物。由中国对外汉语教学学会和北京语言学院共同创办的会刊《世界汉语教学》,1987年9月转为世界对外汉语教学学会会刊。这两个刊物是20世纪90年代语言类核心刊物

37.成立专门的领导机构:1987年7月成立了由多个部委办组成的国家对外汉语教学领导小组和该小组的常设机构办公室。简称国家汉办。

38.汉语测试的改进,HSK、商务汉语考试BCT,少儿汉语考试YCT

39.发展难度

40.两个教学阶段是指集中语音教学阶段和后语音教学阶段 41.带音法,已旧带新,以易带难。(yuzhchsh)

42.近年来,学者们提出了很多汉字教学的方法,有“基本字带字”法、“建立汉字联想网”、充分利用“基本部件和基本字”,所有这些,都充分重视部件在汉字教学中的作用。以部件为基本点,以点带面,有系统的进行汉字教学。以部件为中心的汉字教学,成为对外汉字教学界的主流,教学实践也证明这是一种正确的定位。

43.所谓部件,是指由笔画组成的具有组配汉字功能的构字单位。它又可分为成字部件和不成字部件两大部分。

44.文化教学的内容:一是对外汉语教学,也就是语言课中的文化教学;二是文化课教学。语言课的文化教学和文化课的文化教学不同,这两门课性质不同,所承担的任务也不同。一般来说,对初级水平的学生实施语言课中的文化教学,对中高级水平的实施文化课教学。45.汉字具有不同于世界绝大多数文字的特殊性,这种特殊性体现在 表义和表音、书写系统的层次性、文字处理的特殊大脑机制。

46.口语教学原则,i+1.i代表学生已有的汉语水平,加一指略高于学生水平的语言输入。这样,i+1的输入对于学生来说是可懂的输入根据领会教学法,我们正是通过可懂的输入习得语言的。I+1可说是一般的外语教学原则。

47.词汇教学的目标:按照以上两个大纲,即前者的甲乙丙三级词汇共5253个,或后者的初、高两级词共5249个,可以作为教学的主要依据。即,这5200多个词是初级、中级阶段汉语作为二语学习者学习词汇的数量和范围。也是初中级词汇的教学任务和目标。48.编写教案:

欧洲文化入门复习重点 篇4

2、贵州东与湖南交界,北与四川和重庆相连,西与云南接壤,南与广西毗邻。

3、农业(夜郎时期的铁制农具),纺织业(秦汉时期的蜡染工艺),制陶业(汉代的制陶工艺)矿冶业(唐代的土法开采),酿造业(魏、晋时期烧酒蒸馏技术)。

4、贵州位于东经10336`-10935`、北纬2434`-2913`之间,平均海拔1000米左右。是一个海拔较高、纬度较低、喀斯特地貌发育的内陆山区;贵州地势西高东低,呈三级阶梯分布,又自中部向北部、东部、南部三面倾斜。

5、贵州总面积是176167平方千米,地貌类型主要是山地、丘陵和盆地。其中山地和丘陵占92.5%,山间小盆地只占7.5%,是一个典型的山区。(地无三里平)

6、贵州气候温暖湿润、类型多样,属于亚热带季风湿润气候。贵州各地年平均气温在15℃左右。气温变化幅度较小。最冷月一月平均气温在3-6℃之间;最热月七月平均气温在22-26℃之间。(冬无严寒,夏无酷暑,温暖湿润。)

7、贵州河网密度较大。苗岭以北属长江流域,包括牛栏江横江水系、赤水河纂江水系、乌江水系和沅江水系。苗岭以南属珠江流域,包括南、北盘江水系、红水河水系和都柳江水系。贵州还有丰富的地下河。

8、贵州的河流大都水量丰富,河流落差大,形成了丰富的水力资源。同时又都位于长江和珠江的上游河段,对中、下游的泥沙含量有着决定性影响,所以河流两岸的水土保持工作十分重要。

9、贵州林地多、耕地少,没有平原支撑的耕作条件。贵州土壤类型复杂多样,在各类土壤中黄壤面积最大,其次是石灰土,最少的是水稻土。

10、贵州植物错综复杂、分布呈过渡性的多种植被。贵州植物种类繁多,有常绿阔叶林、常绿落叶阔叶混交林、落叶阔叶林,针叶林,竹林、灌木和草丛。而且在空间分布上表现出明显的垂直差异和过渡性,从而相互重叠,组合复杂。丰富的植物资源,为贵州的林业、畜牧业发展和生态环境提供了良好的条件。

11、自然资源,重点掌握能源、生物、矿产、自然风光四大资源的特点,突出这些资源在全国的地位。

12、水煤结合,优势突出的能源资源:(1)、水能资源,蕴藏量1874.5千瓦,居全国第6位。特点:分布均、造价低、发力高、区位优。又相对集中在乌江、南盘江、北盘江、清水江、赤水河四江一河上,其中乌江是中国著名的水能“富矿”,国家梯级开发的11个大中型水电站中贵州占9个。(2)、煤炭资源,2010年基础储量128.1亿吨,居全国第5位,超过南方12省(区、市)储量的总和,以“西南煤海”著称。煤种齐全,质量较好,分布广泛,又相对集中于六盘水市和毕节地区,成为西南最大的炼焦煤基地。

13、组合良好、开发前景广阔的矿产资源。贵州已探明储量76种矿产中,有41种保有储量全国前10位。(1)、铝土矿,2010年基础储量居全国第3位。质量优良,分布集中于贵阳——清镇——修文——遵义沿线。(2)、磷矿,2010年基础储量居全国第3位,富矿储存量为华夏之冠。分布广泛,又相对集中于贵阳、瓮安、福泉、织金等地。(3)、重晶石,基础储量占全国1/3,达1.26亿吨,居全国第1位,质量优良,分布广泛。(4)金矿,2011年储量260.02吨,居全国第11位。是中国首先发现卡林型金矿的省份,主要分布在黔西南,被称为“中国金州”。

14、种类繁多、具有广泛利用价值的生物资源。植物资源,森林覆盖率2010年达40.52%,是全国平均水平的2倍多,树种丰富,分布以黔东南最多;山地草场较为广泛,分布最多的是威宁、水城、望谟、黎平、盘县和罗甸;农作物品种繁多,许多成为名优土特产品;药用0

0

0

0植物资源丰富,是全国四大药材产区之一,具有“黔地无闲草”的美称;野生经济植物数百种,以纤维、鞣料、芳香、油脂植物为主;珍稀植物资源地位突出,有74种珍稀植物被列入国家珍稀涉危保护植物名录。

15、动物资源:除饲养的畜禽外,贵州有近千种野生动物资源,列入国家重点保护的珍稀动物有87种,其中国家一级保护动物有黔金丝猴、黑叶猴、华南虎、云豹、豹、白鹤、黑鹤、黑颈鹤、金雕、白肩雕、白尾海雕、白头鹤、蟒等15种;国家二级保护动物有72种。

16、贵州是古生物的王国。还是中国古人类和古文化的发源地之一。考古工作者在贵州发现了大量的三叶虫、海百合、贵州龙等古生物化石群。考证认为在五六亿年前,贵州就是古生物的王国。后来科学家在对黔西县沙井乡观音洞的出土石制品和动物化石考证中发现,那时的古人类距今约24万年,并且石器加工文化独特,被命名为“观音洞文化”。与北京周口店、山西西候度齐名,分别代表了中国旧石器时代早期的三种文化类型。后来还发现了大量的古人类活动痕迹。

17、贵州夜郎国的强大到“土流并治”的实行。春秋时期在北盘江上游兴起的一支濮人部落称为夜郎国,势力不断扩大,其经济已发展成为“耕田,有邑聚”的农耕社会。西汉时期,汉武帝派使者唐蒙到夜郎,夜郎候多同问“汉孰与我大”,因而留下了“夜郎自大”的典故。汉帝以子孙世袭权利等优惠条件将夜郎纳入朝廷行政统一建制,设为牂牁郡,实行“土流并治”。同时移入大量人口,带来了中原文化和巴蜀文明。

18、魏晋南北朝的战乱到隋唐时期的制度变迁。魏晋南北朝,贵州“牂牁大姓”统治,与朝廷关系时有变迁,战乱不断。这是一个民族大迁徙、大融合的时期,苗瑶、百越、氐羌几大族系进入贵州,在经济、文化上进行广泛交流。隋唐时期,仍实行“土流并治”,但表现为乌江以北实行经制州,以南实行羁麼州,西部接受中央王朝封号,成为藩国。

19、宋元时期的“土”、“流”权利抗衡。宋代,基本沿袭唐代的统治方法,羁麼州大体不变,经制州大为缩减,藩国却大有发展,宋王朝对土著首领多有封赐。974年,彝族土著首领普贵以所领矩州(现贵阳)归顺朝廷,土语“矩”与“贵”同音,宋太祖敕书称“惟尔贵州,远在要荒”,贵州名称始见文献。1119年朝廷为土著首领田佑恭加受“贵州防御使”衔,贵州正式成为行政区划名称,区域也相应扩大。元朝虽加强中央集权,但也同时遍行土司制度。形成了“府州县与土司并存”的局面。

20、明代是贵州历史发展的重要里程碑。一是建省,使贵州正式成为省一级行政单位。朝廷为了加强西南统治,1382年在贵州设都指挥司(省一级军事机构)。1413年设布政使司(省级行政),使贵州正式成为全国第十三个行省。1417年设提刑按察司(司法)。至此实行“军政分管、土流并治”,加强了中央统治权利。二是大规模推行屯田,加快了贵州的开发,使贵州的发展进入一个新的历史时期。

21、清朝的封建统治与疆域范围的定型。改土归流使贵州普遍采取府、厅、州、县的行政建制,官吏由朝廷委派,贵州进入真正意义的封建社会,爆发了“乾嘉起义”与“咸同起义”,打击了地主阶级的统治。这时对疆域作了较大调整。将四川统属的遵义府划入贵州,使贵州的土地面积增加了3万多平方千米;将毕节的永宁划归四川;将广西以北设为永丰州(后改为贞丰),与广西的荔波、湖南的平溪、天柱一并划归贵州管辖。至此,贵州的疆域面积基本确定。

22、鸦片战争时期的“反洋教”斗争。鸦片战争后中国沦为半封建半殖民地社会,贵州成为法国的传教区,教会和外国传教士以征服者自居,藐视官府,欺压百姓,贵州先后爆发了“青岩教案”、“开州教案”和“遵义教案”三大教案。“青岩教案”是全国“反洋教”斗争的先声。在其影响下爆发了四川的酉阳教案和安徽的安庆教案等。虽然“三大教案”最终因清政府的无能而遭查办,但它震惊了全国,唤醒各族人民的反帝反封建觉悟。

23、军阀统治与中国工农红军的活动。从1912年到1935年,贵州处于军阀统治时期,战乱不断,人民生活在水深火热之中。同时,中国工农红军建立,先后有6支红军队伍在贵州活动长达6年时间,转战南北,建立革命根据地和区、乡苏维埃政权。召开了黎平会议、遵义会议。贵州成为红军二万五千里长征途经地,挺近黔北,四渡赤水,南下息烽,威逼贵阳,胜利实现战略大转移,驰骋于贵州五分之四的地方,震撼了反动统治,播下革命火种。使贵州现在成为“红色旅游”的主要地区。

24、国民党统治与抗战时期的贵州。1935年4月,国民党取代军阀统治贵州,地下党组织的活动处于低潮时期。市场混乱,物价飞涨,贵州各族人民再次陷入水火之中。抗日战争爆发,贵州成为大后方之一。随着黔桂、湘黔、川黔、滇黔4条公路与邻省连通,一些沿海地区的机关、学校、商号、企业迁入,使贵州社会、经济的发展出现了战时的繁荣。抗战结束,国民党统治中心东迁,外省厂商纷纷迁出,贵州经济也随之衰落。

25、多民族团结互助的社会环境:从人口的增长过程来看,1949——1959年,解放了,随着人民生活水平的提高和医疗条件的改善,人口出生率上升,死亡率下降,自然增长较快,加上全国各地的人口进入贵州、支援建设,使人口从1416.4万人增加到1743.96万人。

26、明代,贵州大约99万人,到1949年,人口增长到1416.4万人,五百多年增加了一千三百多万人。2006年贵州总人口达到3000.3万人,五十多年人口增加了二千五百多万人,现在超过4000万人,说明解放后是贵州人口的快速增长期。

27、民族构成,2000年全国第五次人口普查时,贵州登记的总人口有3524.77万人,共有56个民族成分。汉族占全省总人口的62.16%,少数民族占37.84%。其中,汉、苗、布依、侗、土家、彝、仡佬、水、白、回、壮、蒙古、畲、瑶、毛南、么佬、满、羌18个民族为贵州的世居民族。

28、民族文化,在语言文字方面,贵州少数民族的语言基本上属于汉藏语系。苗族、布依族、侗族、彝族等许多民族都有自己的语言,但绝大多数少数民族通晓汉语,而且作为交流的基本工具。

29、侗族文化,常有谚语说:“侗人文化三样宝:鼓楼、大歌和花轿”。

30、潜在巨大的经济发展基础,贵州国民经济现状及三次产业结构变化。2006年,贵州国民生产总值达到2267.43亿元。从1997——2006年,年均增长速度连续10年高于全国平均水平。与1978年相比,生产总值增长11.01倍、财政总收入增长30.60倍。但由于原来的基础较差,与全国特别是经济发达省区相比,欠发达、欠开发仍然是现阶段贵州的基本省情。

31、在贵州生产总值中,1949年,第一、二、三产业增加值的比例是83.0:12.5:4.5,三次产业的排序为一、二、三,第一产业(农业)占有绝对优势,第二产业(工业和建筑业)有了一些发展,第三产业(服务业)最为落后。到1992年,三次产业的比例是35.7:35.9:28.4,排序变化为二、一、三。1999年,三次产业的比例为28.6:37.4:34.0,排序变化为二、三、一。2005年,三次产业的比例为18.3:41.8:39.9,仍保持二、三、一的格局,但第一产业比例下降到20%以下,标志着贵州已经步入工业化中期。

32、以“两基”攻坚为重点的教育事业取得显著成就。对农村义务教育阶段贫困家庭学生实施了“两免一补”。到2006年,全省“两基”教育人口覆盖率由2000年的31.0%提高到2006年的100%。高等教育,职业技术教育发展加快,公共卫生基础设施也得到了改进。组建了新的贵州大学,并成功进入了国家-211工程建设行列。

33、贵州正在努力实现经济社会发展的历史性跨越。2005年,胡锦涛总书记视察贵州时指出:贵州要进一步抓住机遇,用好机遇,努力实现经济社会发展的历史性跨越,即全省人民生活水平总体上实现由温饱到总体小康再到全面小康的历史性跨越。

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